The Catholic Reformation
The Reformation was not the work of a single generation: even a generation as gifted as that of Luther, Melancthon, Zwingli, and Calvin. Indeed, the complexity of the period indicated that Calvin’s description of the churches of the Reformation as at the same time, Reformed and Reforming, is apt.
The Old Church Reborn:
The Catholic Church was, in a sense, caught off guard by the early reformation and watched despairingly as the new movement, despite all the traditional means of repression, won victory after victory. Within less than a century, Catholicism had rebounded and was firmly established in the most powerful countries of Europe, had reconverted Poland and Bohemia, and was a perpetual temptation in England. The fringe quality of Protestantism was evident to anyone who had a map of Europe. Only the most militant forms of Protestantism, such as the hearty Calvinism of the Dutch, or the religious-nationalism of the Church of England were able to resist the new church. Indeed, part of the paradox of history is that those areas of Europe that remained Protestant would, by the 19th century, have wrestled the intellectual and economic leadership of Christendom from their opponents, and whether in religious or secular forms, recreated both.
Three Marks of the Catholic Reformation and Counterreformations:
Catholicism had its greatest strength in the countryside. Even after the reforms that we will note below, little changed in the countryside.
Much of what enabled the ancient church to recreate itself was already in progress before the Reformation.
a. Spanish mysticism and the missionary expansion of the Church around the world.
b. The devotionalism that strengthened and sustained Catholic reform had been part of the Church’s common life from the beginning. Much revolved around the exposed host, such as the forty hours devotion, or the heavy emphasis on the exposure of the host.
c. The Catholic Church continued to dominate the intellectual and artistic life of Europe until 1700 and perhaps beyond. To be cultured and urbane was to be Catholic, not protestant: a fact not lost on Europe’s aristocracy.
Religious orders, including such new forms as the Jesuits, enabled the church to influence many areas of political and religious life.
Some Popes:
Adrian VI, 1522-23
Dutch theologian
Strong reformer
Discovered that too much reform would, in fact, bankrupt the
Church.
Purga Roman pergatur mundus: To reform Rome is to reform the world
Died within a year of becoming Pope. “Alas! How the power of even a
Good and righteous man depends on the times in which he
Happened to live.
Clement VII (d. 1534)
Easy going
Offered to compromise on wine (communion) and women (clerical
Marriage)
Called a council that never met
Paul III (1534-1549)
Educated as a humanist who promoted many humanists, including England’s Reginald Pole, to positions of power
Appointed a distinguished committee to consider reformation of the curia:
Pole, Contarini, Carafa, Sadoleto, Giberti, and Fregoso
1538: The Committee published its report in both Catholic and
Protestant countries.
Saw the problems as simony, pluralism, and nepotism
Never discussed the theological problems these had produced/
Supported the spirituali, an Italian group that featured biblical study and elevated Gasparo Contarini to the Cardinate
May have sympathized with Luther’s understanding of justification
1541: The Colloquy of Regensburg adopts an understanding of justification and sanctification that combined elements of Luther (faith alone) and works (the result of faith)
Ironically, Paul himself put some of Contarini’s books on the
Index
Supported some revived items of repression
The Index of Prohibited Books
Originally circulated by the University of Paris and
Louvain
Made church wide in 1559
Included works of Erasmus, most biblical scholars,
Two signatures for a book to be published.
The Inquisitions revived
Technical name: the Holy Office
Most famous was the Spanish
Persecuted Jews and Muslims as well as Christians
The auto de fe
Secrecy and torture used
The sambenitos or penitential garments were hung
In the local parish with the name and date of the
Conviction
No worse than other Hapsburg courts
Many males were worked to death on the galleys
Homosexuality was increasingly criminalized
Spread to most Catholic countries
Carafa, later Paul IV, its greatest advocate. “No man is to lower himself by showing toleration toward any sort of heretic, least of all a Calvinist”
In theory, the inquisition was to be established in all Catholic Countries. In fact, the monarch determined whether it would be established or used.
Under Paul IV, all Italy became a witch hunt
Paul IV (1555-1559)
Created the Roman ghetto
Argued that the Jews should be enslaved.
The Jesuits
The great voice of the New Catholicism
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Trained as a knight
Wounded in battle and thereafter resolved to become “a soldier of God
under the cross.”
Offered his sword to Mary
Most notable work was the Spiritual Exercises
After some adventures, he ended up at Paris where he gathered the
Company of Jesus which was resolved to either go to the Holy
Land or offer themselves to the Pope
Became the great missionary order as well as an influential educator
Noted as the somewhat tolerant confessors of the rich and powerful
Special character of the order.
If we wish to proceed securely in all things, we must hold fast to the following principle. What seems to me white, I must believe black, if the hierarchical church so defines. For I must be convinced that in Christ, our Lord, the bridegroiom, and in his spouse, the church, only one Spirit holds sway, which governs and rules for the salvation of souls.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
The demand for a Council proved irresistible
Three sessions, 1545-7; 1551-2, and 1563
Largely Spanish and Italian
Fixed Catholic Doctrine in Opposition to Protestantism
Scripture plus tradition
The bible is inerrant in all that it says
Vulgate is the only version valid in theology
Free will affirmed
Seven sacraments affirmed
Indulgencies and relics supported
Transubstantiation
Bread for laity only
Standardized the text of the mass
Numerous disciplinary canons affirmed.
Residence affirmed at the norm
Celibacy was required and punishments for violating the oath
Were strongly stated
The New Mysticism
Mysticism was increasingly private
Theresa of Avila
Theresa (Teresa) of Avila (1515-1582)
Carmelite nun
Reformer of her order
Noted for her visions and emotional apprehension of faith
John of the Cross (1542-1591)
Close friend of St. Theresa
Famous for his image of the Dark Night of the Soul to describe the
Period of aridity after a season of heightened experience.